Peering agreements are foundational to the operation of the internet, defining the terms under which networks exchange traffic. These agreements enable internet service providers (ISPs), content delivery networks (CDNs), cloud providers, and other entities to interconnect directly, facilitating efficient data exchange and ensuring seamless connectivity for end users. While peering often involves technical and operational…

Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks have become a persistent threat to internet infrastructure, targeting everything from small websites to critical services that power global communications. At their core, DDoS attacks overwhelm a target with excessive traffic, rendering it inaccessible to legitimate users. Mitigating these attacks requires a multifaceted approach that leverages both routing and…

Peering is a cornerstone of the internet’s architecture, allowing networks to exchange traffic directly and efficiently. Within this framework, two primary approaches to establishing peering relationships exist: multilateral peering and bilateral peering. Both models serve the same fundamental purpose of facilitating traffic exchange, but they differ significantly in their operational mechanics, scalability, and strategic implications.…

DNS propagation and routing convergence are two fundamental processes in the functioning of the internet, each governing critical aspects of how data is directed and accessed across networks. While they operate in different domains, they share similarities in their reliance on distributed systems and the need for synchronization. Understanding the distinctions and interplay between these…

DNS over HTTPS, or DoH, represents a significant evolution in the way DNS queries are handled, with profound implications for privacy, security, and internet routing. Traditionally, DNS queries and responses were transmitted in plaintext over UDP or TCP, making them vulnerable to eavesdropping, manipulation, and censorship. DoH addresses these vulnerabilities by encrypting DNS traffic using…

The integrity and security of internet operations rely heavily on both the Domain Name System and the underlying routing infrastructure. DNSSEC and routing security form two critical pillars in protecting these foundational components, addressing vulnerabilities that could be exploited to undermine the trust and functionality of the global internet. When combined, these two approaches provide…

DNS root servers play an essential role in the foundational operation of the internet, serving as the initial step in translating human-readable domain names into machine-readable IP addresses. While not directly responsible for the transmission of data packets across the internet, these servers are integral to internet routing by facilitating the Domain Name System’s resolution…

The role of IP addresses in domain resolution is foundational to how the internet functions. Behind every website visit, email sent, or online service accessed is a sophisticated system that ensures human-friendly domain names are translated into machine-readable IP addresses. This process, which bridges user interaction and technical infrastructure, is integral to the seamless operation…

Internet routing is the backbone of global connectivity, enabling billions of devices worldwide to exchange information seamlessly. At its core, internet routing is the process of determining how data packets travel from a source to a destination across a complex web of interconnected networks. To appreciate the significance of this process, it is essential to…

The internet has evolved into an essential infrastructure for global communication, commerce, and innovation. As its scale and complexity continue to grow, so too do the challenges associated with managing its routing and Domain Name System (DNS). The future of internet routing and DNS lies in addressing these challenges through strategic planning, technological innovation, and…